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Information Available from Radar
A radar obtains information about a target by comparing the received echo signal with the transmitted signal .The availability of an echo signal indicates the presence of a reflecting target ;but knowing a target is present is of litter use by itself. Something more must be known. Therefore, radar provides the location of the target as well as its presents. It can also provide information about the type of target. This is known as target classification.
The time delay between the transmission of the radar signal and the radar signal and the receipt of an echo is a measure of the distance, or range, to the target. The range measurement is usually the most significant a radar makes. No other sensor has been able to compete with radar for determining the range to a distant target. Typical radar might be able to measure range to an accuracy of several hundred meters, but accuracies better than a fraction of a meter are practical. Radar ranges might be as short as that of the police traffic-speed- meter, or as long as the distances to the nearby planets.
Almost all radars utilize directive antennas. A directive antenna not only provides the transmitting gain and receiving aperture needed for detecting weak signals, but its narrow beam width allows the target’s direction to be determined. Typical radar might have a beam width of perhaps one or two degrees. The angular resolution is determined by the beam width, but the angular accuracy can be considerably better than the beam width. A ten to one beam splitting would not be unusual for typical radar. Some radar can measure angular accuracy considerable better than this. An rms error of 0.1 mrad is possible with the best tracking radars.
The echo from a moving target produces a frequency shift due to the Doppler Effect, which is a measure of the relative velocity. Relative velocity also can be determined from the rate of change to range. Tracking radars often measure relative velocity in this manner rather than use the Doppler shift. However, radars for the surveillance and tracking of extraterrestrial targets, such as satellites and spacecraft, might employ the Doppler shift to measure directly the relative velocity, but it is seldom used for this purpose in aircraft-surveillance radars. Instead, aircraft-surveillance radars use the Doppler frequency shift to separate the desired moving targets from the undesired fixed clutter echoes, as in MTI radars.
If the target can be viewed from many directions, its shape can be determined. Space object identification (SOI) radars are an example of those that extract target shape information. The synthetic aperture radar (SAR) which maps the terrain is another example .Radars that determines the shape of a target is sometimes called imaging radars.
To obtain the target size or shape requires resolution in range and in angle. Good range resolution is generally easier to achieve than comparable resolution in angle. In some radar applications it is possible to utilize resolution in the Doppler frequency shift as a substitute for resolution in angle, if there is relative motion between the distributed target and the radar. Resolution is possible since element of the distributed target has a different relative velocity. This principle has been used in synthetic aperture radars for ground mapping, inverse SAR for SOI and the imaging of planets, and in the scatterometter for measuring the ground or sea echo as a function of incidence angle.
Target Acquisition Radars
Target acquisition radars are a special form of surveillance radar, generally associated with weapon control radar. The function of this type of radar is to search a relatively limited surveillance volume and obtain target designation data for the weapon control radar, or in some cases for the weapon itself.
The target acquisition radar can either be independent radar or a mode of multifunction radar. There are proponents of either type, but the current trend is towards multifunction where the radar performs both target acquisition and w weapon guidance and control functions (e.g. the patriot phased array radar)
A classic form of this type of radar is the height-finding radars still in use in many currently operational air-defense systems. The function of these radars is to provide altitude data on selected targets by way of associate 2-D surveillance radars. Height-finding radars typically work at radar C-band or S-band frequencies and provide a degree of ECCM frequency diversity in conjunction with their associated 2-D surveillance radars, which typically work at L band and lower frequencies.
Typical height-finding radar (FPS-6) CAN slew in azimuth to any target within four seconds. It then nods in elevation at a rate of 20 to 30 nods per minute. The azimuth beam width is on the order of three degrees, which establishes the hand-off accuracy of the 2-D surveillance radar. An average of 40 heights per minute is typical for an air defense system employing two height-finding radars. The height is estimated by measuring the target’s elevation angle and range, and then solving the triangular relationship to determine height. The height accuracy is a function of range and is the order of 1 to 2m per km of target range.
In modern air defense system, the expected target density is such that 3-D surveillance radars are employed. Modern 3-D surveillance radar can supply target height information for every target within its surveillance volume within a typical five to ten second frame time. The use of a 3-D radar forces a compromise radar frequency (usually in S band) to be employed. The height-finding accuracy improves with increasing frequency, which dictates a minimum S-band frequency for a reasonable vertical aperture, while the 2-D surveillance requirement generally favors L-band frequency, which is compatible with solid-state transmitter operation, by using an extended vertical aperture.
Another example of a target acquisition radar is the continuous-wave acquisition radar (CWAR) used in the Hawk missile system. The function of this radar is to search the horizon (zero to four degree elevation coverage) to detect low-flying aircraft or missiles, which would normally be screened by ground clutter in a conventional pulse-type radar with MTI.
A high transmitter frequency (X band) is used to minimize the effect of radar multipath, which can cause a destructive interference at low altitudes (ht<λR4ifa
). A bank of narrowband Doppler filters extracts the target from the clutter and allows a determination of its radial velocity. A frequency modulation (FM) is imposed on the transmitted waveform to measure range to the target with sufficient accuracy to select targets for designation to the tracking radar.
The CW frequency operation provides the ability to detect targets that are heavily imbedded in ground clutter. Sub clutter visibilities in the 100-200 dB regions are feasible with this type of system. Transmitter leakage is a problem which may reduce performance. Separate receive and transmit antennas are used to reduce leakage, in addition to a nulling technique whereby an out-of-phase sample of the transmitter carrier is injected into the receiver to cancel the radiated leakage.
The current threat facing this type of radar consists of high-speed/low-level penetrating aircraft, large numbers of low-flying cruise missiles, and helicopters using pop-up and nap-of-earth tactics causing them to be in view for only a short time. This compresses the time scale available for the acquisition radar to perform its function to the point where even fractions of a second are important. The minimum three-second time period it takes the Hawk CWAR to search the surveillance volume is marginal for this kind of threat, considering that it must not only detect the target, but also identify it and generate a track vector possibly in the presence of a heavy ECM and multi-target environment.
Radar Subsystems
The basic role of the radar antenna is to provide a transducer between the free-space propagation and the guided-wave propagation of electromagnetic waves. The specific function of the antenna during transmission is to concentrate the radiated energy into a shaped directive beam which illuminates the targets in a desired direction. During reception the antenna collects the energy contained in the reflected target echo signals and delivers it to the receiver. Thus the radar antenna is used to fulfill reciprocal but related roles during its transmit and receive modes. In both of these modes or roles, its primary purpose is to accurately determine the angular direction of the target. For this purpose, a highly directive (narrow) beam width is needed, not only to achieve angular accuracy but also to resolve targets close to one another. This important feature of a radar antenna is expressed quantitatively in terms not only of the beam width but also of transmit gain and effective receiving aperture. These latter two parameters are proportional to one another and are directly related to the detection range and angular accuracy.
The above functional description of radar antennas implies that a signal antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving. Although this holds true for most radar systems, there are exceptions: some monocratic radars use separate antennas for the two functions; and, of course, biostatic radars must, by definition, have separate transmit and receive antennas.
Radar antennas can be classified into two broad categories, optical antennas and array antennas. The optical category, as the name implies, comprises antennas based on optical principles and includes two subgroups, namely, reflector antennas and lens antennas. Reflector antennas are still widely used for radar, whereas lens antennas, although still used in some communication and electronic warfare (EW) application, are no longer used in modern radar systems.