經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)原理曼昆.ppt

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,,,,第6章：供給、需求 與政府政策,Chapter 6,供給，需求和政府政策,在一個(gè)自由的，無管制的市場(chǎng)體系中，均衡的價(jià)格和交易數(shù)量是由市場(chǎng)的力量所建立的 In a free, unregulated market system, market forces establish equilibrium prices and exchange quantities. 當(dāng)均衡狀態(tài)是有效的時(shí)候，每個(gè)人才與可能被滿足。 While equilibrium conditions may be efficient, it may be true that not everyone is satisfied. 經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家的一個(gè)角色就是運(yùn)用理論來支持政策的發(fā)展 One of the roles of economists is to use their theories to assist in the development of policies,價(jià)格上限與價(jià)格下限 Price Ceilings & Price Floors,Price Ceiling 價(jià)格上限 指某一物品出售的法定最高價(jià)格 A legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold Price Floor 價(jià)格下限 指某一物品出售的法定最低價(jià)格 A legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold.,價(jià)格上限,當(dāng)政府強(qiáng)制實(shí)行價(jià)格上限時(shí) 可能出現(xiàn)兩種結(jié)果: 價(jià)格上限如果設(shè)在均衡價(jià)格之上，就是沒有約束力的. The price ceiling is not binding if set above the equilibrium price ?價(jià)格上限如果設(shè)在均衡價(jià)格之下，從而導(dǎo)致短缺，就是具有約束力的. The price ceiling is binding if set below the equilibrium price, leading to a shortage.,有價(jià)格上限時(shí)的市場(chǎng),,,,,,,,,,,,,(a) 沒有限制作用的價(jià)格上限,冰激凌蛋卷的數(shù)量,0,,冰激凌蛋卷的價(jià)格（美元）,均衡價(jià)格,有限制作用的價(jià)格上限,Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning,,,,,,,,,,,,,(b) 有限制作用的價(jià)格上限,冰激凌蛋卷的數(shù)量,0,冰激凌蛋 卷的價(jià)格,,,,價(jià)格上限效應(yīng) Effects of Price Ceilings,有約束力的價(jià)格上限創(chuàng)造 . 短缺 因?yàn)?QD QS. 范例: 20世紀(jì)70年代的汽油短缺 Gasoline shortage of the 1970s 非價(jià)格配給 范例: 排長(zhǎng)隊(duì), 賣方實(shí)施的歧視 Long lines, discrimination by sellers,1973年，石油輸出國(guó)組織OPEC提高了世界石油市場(chǎng)的原油價(jià)格。由于原油是用于生產(chǎn)汽油的主要投入，較高的石油價(jià)格減少了汽油供給. 是什么導(dǎo)致了人們排隊(duì)加油呢？,案例研究：加油站前的長(zhǎng)隊(duì),經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家把它歸咎于限制石油公司對(duì)汽油可以收取的價(jià)格的政府管制,有價(jià)格上限的汽油市場(chǎng),Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning,,,,,,,,,,,,,(a) 汽油的價(jià)格上限沒有限制性,汽油數(shù)量,,0,汽油價(jià)格,,有價(jià)格上限的汽油市場(chǎng),Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,(b) 汽油的價(jià)格上限有限制性,汽油數(shù)量,,0,汽油價(jià)格,租金控制 Rent Control,租金控制就是對(duì)房東向租戶索取的房租制定最高價(jià)格水平線. Rent controls are ceilings placed on the rents that landlords may charge their tenants. 租金控制政策的目標(biāo)是通過使住房租金變得讓大多數(shù)人能夠支付得起，從而幫助窮人。 The goal of rent control policy is to help the poor by making housing more affordable. 有位經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家把租金控制說成是“除了轟炸之外摧毀城市的最佳方式”。 One economist called rent control “the best way to destroy a city, other than bombing.”,,,短期中的租金控制 Rent Control in the Short Run.,公寓數(shù)量,0,公寓的 出租價(jià)格,需求,供給,,,,,公寓的供給與需求是相對(duì)缺乏彈性的,,,長(zhǎng)期中的租金控制 Rent Control in the Long Run.,公寓數(shù)量,0,公寓的 出租價(jià)格,需求,供給,,,,,因?yàn)楣⒌墓┙o與需求更加具有彈性.,…租金控制引起更大的短缺,,,,,價(jià)格下限 Price Floors,當(dāng)政府強(qiáng)制實(shí)行價(jià)格下限時(shí) 可能出現(xiàn)兩種結(jié)果: 價(jià)格下限如果設(shè)在均衡價(jià)格之下，就是沒有約束力的. The price floor is not binding if set below the equilibrium price. ?價(jià)格下限如果設(shè)在均衡價(jià)格之下，從而導(dǎo)致過剩，就是具有約束力的. The price floor is binding if set above the equilibrium price, leading to a surplus.,有價(jià)格下限的市場(chǎng),Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning,,,,,,,,,,,,,(a) 沒有限制性的價(jià)格下限,冰激凌蛋卷的數(shù)量,0,冰激凌蛋卷 的價(jià)格,,有價(jià)格下限的市場(chǎng),Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning,,,,,,,,,,,,,（b）有限制性的價(jià)格下限,冰激凌蛋卷的數(shù)量,0,冰激凌 蛋卷的價(jià)格,,,,價(jià)格下限的效應(yīng),有約束力的價(jià)格下限引起 . . . 過剩，因?yàn)?QS QD. a surplus because QS QD. 非價(jià)格配給 是一種利用歧視標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的可替換的商品配給機(jī)制. nonprice rationing is an alternative mechanism for rationing the good, using discrimination criteria. 范例: 最低工資, 農(nóng)業(yè)價(jià)格扶持 The minimum wage, agricultural price supports,最低工資,價(jià)格下限的一個(gè)例子是最低工資。最低工資法設(shè)定了任何雇主雇傭勞動(dòng)力時(shí)所付的最低價(jià)格。 An important example of a price floor is the minimum wage. Minimum wage laws dictate the lowest price possible for labor that any employer may pay.,最低工資如何影響勞動(dòng)力市場(chǎng),Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning,,,,,,,,,,,,,,勞動(dòng)力數(shù)量,工資,0,最低工資 The Minimum Wage,,,勞動(dòng)力數(shù)量,0,工資,勞動(dòng)力需求,勞動(dòng)力供給,,,,,存在最低工資的勞動(dòng)力市場(chǎng),,,,,稅收,政府通過征收稅收來為公共項(xiàng)目集資。 Governments levy taxes to raise revenue for public projects.,,,向買者或者賣者征稅如何影響市場(chǎng)結(jié)果？ How Taxes on Buyers (and Sellers) Affect Market Outcomes,稅收并不鼓勵(lì)市場(chǎng)行為 Taxes discourage market activity. 當(dāng)對(duì)一個(gè)物品征稅時(shí)，銷售量下降 When a good is taxed, the quantity sold is smaller. 買者和賣者共同負(fù)擔(dān)稅收 Buyers and sellers share the tax burden.,,,彈性與稅收歸宿 Elasticity and Tax Incidence,稅收歸宿是指稅收負(fù)擔(dān)如何在市場(chǎng)參與者之間分擔(dān)。 Tax incidence is the manner in which the burden of a tax is shared among participants in a market.,,,稅收,稅收歸宿（Tax incidence） 是對(duì)由誰來承擔(dān)稅收負(fù)擔(dān)的研究. Tax incidence is the study of who bears the burden of a tax. 稅收引起市場(chǎng)均衡的變化. Taxes result in a change in market equilibrium 無論稅收是向誰征收的，購(gòu)買者都要支付得更多，而出售者則得到較少的收入 Buyers pay more and sellers receive less, regardless of whom the tax is levied on.,對(duì)買者征稅,Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,冰激凌蛋卷的數(shù)量,,0,冰激凌 蛋卷的價(jià)格,對(duì)賣者征稅,Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,冰激凌蛋卷的數(shù)量,I,0,冰激凌 蛋卷的價(jià)格,工資稅,勞動(dòng)力數(shù)量,0,工資,勞動(dòng)力需求,勞動(dòng)力供給,,,,,,,彈性與稅收歸宿 Elasticity and Tax Incidence,稅收負(fù)擔(dān)應(yīng)該以何種比例分擔(dān)？ In what proportions is the burden of the tax divided? 稅收對(duì)買者的影響相對(duì)于賣者是什么樣的？ How do the effects of taxes on sellers compare to those levied on buyers? 這些問題的答案依賴于需求彈性和供給彈性 The answers to these questions depend on the elasticity of demand and the elasticity of supply.,稅收負(fù)擔(dān)如何分?jǐn)?Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning,,,,,,,,,,,,,,數(shù)量,0,價(jià)格,(a) 供給富有彈性，需求缺乏彈性,稅收負(fù)擔(dān)如何分?jǐn)?Copyright2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning,,,,,,,,,,,,,,數(shù)量,0,價(jià)格,(b)供給缺乏彈性，需求富有彈性,稅收究竟如何分?jǐn)偅?稅收負(fù)擔(dān)更多的落在缺乏彈性的市場(chǎng)一方上 The burden of a tax falls more heavily on the side of the market that is less elastic.,,,,,ELASTICITY AND TAX INCIDENCE,小結(jié),價(jià)格控制包括價(jià)格上限和價(jià)格下限 價(jià)格上限指某一物品和勞務(wù)的法定最高價(jià)格. 一個(gè)范例是租金控制. 價(jià)格下限指某一物品和勞務(wù)的法定最低價(jià)格.一個(gè)范例是最低工資.,小結(jié),稅收是用來籌集收入并用于公共目的的手段. 當(dāng)政府向某一商品課稅時(shí)，該商品的均衡數(shù)量下降. 對(duì)某一商品征稅就是在購(gòu)買者支付的價(jià)格與出售者收取的價(jià)格之間插入了一個(gè)楔子.,小結(jié),稅收歸宿是指誰來承擔(dān)稅收負(fù)擔(dān). 稅收歸宿并不取決于是向購(gòu)買者還是出售者課稅. 稅收歸宿取決于供給與需求的價(jià)格彈性. 稅收負(fù)擔(dān)更多的落在缺乏彈性的市場(chǎng)一方上,